The American civil rights movement that came to prominence in the 1950s had its roots in the 19th-century struggle to abolish slavery.
Basic civil rights were granted to emancipated African Americans during the Reconstruction era (1865–77) that followed the Civil War. But almost as soon as Reconstruction ended, white supremacy was reinstitutionalized in the South, primarily through the system of Jim Crow segregation that was legitimized by the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in the Plessy Ferguson case (1896), which established the constitutionality of “separate but equal” facilities for Black and white people.
Rosa Parks’s refusal to give up her seat to a white passenger on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, in December 1955 sparked a sustained bus boycott that inspired mass protests elsewhere to speed the pace of civil rights reform.
Martin Luther King, Jr., a local pastor who successfully led the Montgomery bus boycott, became the most prominent leader of the civil rights movement by advocating the principles of civil disobedience and nonviolent protest pioneered by Indian activist Mahatma Gandhi.
The principal organizations that coordinated and assisted local organizations working for the full equality of African Americans during the 1950s and ’60s were the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), and National Urban League.
Two of the so-called Reconstruction Amendments—the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship and equal rights to formerly enslaved people, and the Fifteenth Amendment, which guaranteed that the right to vote could not be denied based on “race, color, or previous condition of servitude”—were the cornerstones of legal challenges to racial discrimination during the civil rights movement.
The U.S. Supreme Court’s ruling in Brown Board of Education of Topeka (1954) that public school segregation was unconstitutional is a landmark of the civil rights movement. While the ruling applied only to public schools, it implied that segregation in other public facilities was unconstitutional as well.
The Greensboro sit-in (1960) marked a new phase of the Southern civil rights movement by sparking similar protests in some 60 communities.
The Freedom Rides of 1961 signaled the beginning of a period when civil rights protest activity grew in scale and intensity as nonviolent activists confronted Southern segregation at its strongest points so as to pressure the federal government to intervene to protect the constitutional rights of African Americans.
Martin Luther King’s I Have a Dream speech at the March on Washington in 1963 linked Black civil rights aspirations with traditional American political values.
Television broadcasts showing the hyper-violent response to demonstrators in Birmingham, Alabama (1963), and on the Edmund Pettus Bridge during the Selma March (1965) played a major role in increasing Northern support for the civil rights movement.
By the late 1960s new militant organizations, such as the Black Panther Party, dismissed nonviolent principles and argued that civil rights reforms did not fully address the problems of Black Americans.
Black Power, a revolutionary movement of the 1960s and ’70s, emphasized racial pride, economic empowerment, and the creation of political and cultural institutions.
In the aftermath of civil disorder in Watts (1965), Cleveland (1966), Detroit (1967), and Newark (1967) and throughout the United States following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. (1968), U.S. Pres. Lyndon B. Johnson created the Kerner Commission to identify the causes of the unrest. It cited racism, discrimination, and poverty and warned that “our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal.”
Beginning in the 1960s, increased African American participation in the electoral system led to the election of Black mayors of major cities and to the increasing presence of Black senators and representatives in the U.S. Congress.
Civil rights legislation became the basis for affirmative action—programs that increased opportunities for many Black students and workers as well as for women, disabled people, and other targets of discrimination.
As African Americans made social, political, and economic gains, some white Americans began, in the 1970s, to claim that they were victims of “reverse discrimination.” Since then, such claims have been used, sometimes effectively, to argue against affirmative action policies and to block civil rights initiatives.
In 2009 Barack Obama, the fourth African American to serve in the U.S. Senate, became the first Black president of the United States.
During Obama’s presidency the issue of police brutality against Black Americans was increasingly in the headlines, and a series of high-profile incidents that resulted in the deaths of African Americans at the hands of police or while in police custody prompted widespread protests.
The fatal shooting of Trayvon Martin, a Black teenager, in Sanford, Florida, in February 2012, by a neighbourhood watch volunteer and the shooter’s subsequent acquittal on charges of second-degree murder sparked the founding in 2013 of the Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement, a decentralized grassroots movement that sought to change the many ways in which Black people continued to be treated unfairly in society and the ways in which laws, policies, and institutions perpetrated that unfairness.
Voting rights remained a central concern for the civil rights movement, especially after the U.S. Supreme Court decided in Shelby County Holder (2013) to declare unconstitutional Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which had established a formula for determining which jurisdictions were required to seek federal approval (“preclearance”) of any proposed change to their electoral procedures or laws.
Concerns about potential voter suppression were amplified after lawmakers in nearly every state introduced legislation that sought to restrict access to voting; many lawmakers made baseless claims of voter fraud and election irregularities in the 2020 U.S. presidential election to justify their actions.
